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Background:
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Speculation
over the existence of a "southern land" was not confirmed until
the early 1820s when British and American commercial operators
and British and Russian national expeditions began exploring
the Antarctic Peninsula region and other areas south of the Antarctic
Circle. Not until 1840 was it established that Antarctica was
indeed a continent and not just a group of islands. Several exploration "firsts" were
achieved in the early 20th century. Following World War II, there
was an upsurge in scientific research on the continent. A number
of countries have set up year-round research stations on Antarctica.
Seven have made territorial claims, but no other country recognizes
these claims. In order to form a legal framework for the activities
of nations on the continent, an Antarctic Treaty was negotiated
that neither denies nor gives recognition to existing territorial
claims; signed in 1959, it entered into force in 1961. |
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Location:
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continent mostly
south of the Antarctic Circle |
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Geographic coordinates:
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90 00 S, 0 00 E |
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Map references:
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Antarctic Region |
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Area:
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total: 14
million sq km
note: fifth-largest continent, following Asia, Africa,
North America, and South America, but larger than Australia and
the subcontinent of Europe
land: 14 million sq km (280,000 sq km ice-free, 13.72
million sq km ice-covered) (est.) |
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Area - comparative:
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slightly less than
1.5 times the size of the US |
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Land boundaries:
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0 km
note: see entry on International disputes |
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Coastline:
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17,968 km |
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Maritime claims:
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none; 20 of 27 Antarctic
consultative nations have made no claims to Antarctic territory
(although Russia and the US have reserved the right to do so) and
do not recognize the claims of the other nations; also see the
Disputes - international entry |
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Climate:
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severe low temperatures
vary with latitude, elevation, and distance from the ocean; East
Antarctica is colder than West Antarctica because of its higher
elevation; Antarctic Peninsula has the most moderate climate; higher
temperatures occur in January along the coast and average slightly
below freezing |
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Terrain:
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about 98% thick continental
ice sheet and 2% barren rock, with average elevations between 2,000
and 4,000 meters; mountain ranges up to nearly 5,000 meters; ice-free
coastal areas include parts of southern Victoria Land, Wilkes Land,
the Antarctic Peninsula area, and parts of Ross Island on McMurdo
Sound; glaciers form ice shelves along about half of the coastline,
and floating ice shelves constitute 11% of the area of the continent |
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Elevation extremes:
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lowest point: Bentley
Subglacial Trench -2,555 m
highest point: Vinson Massif 4,897 m
note: the lowest known land point in Antarctica is hidden
in the Bentley Subglacial Trench; at its surface is the deepest
ice yet discovered and the world's lowest elevation not under
seawater |
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Natural resources:
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iron ore, chromium,
copper, gold, nickel, platinum and other minerals, and coal and
hydrocarbons have been found in small uncommercial quantities;
none presently exploited; krill, finfish, and crab have been taken
by commercial fisheries |
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Land use:
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arable land: 0%
permanent crops: 0%
other: 100% (ice 98%, barren rock 2%) (1998 est.) |
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Irrigated land:
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0 sq km (1998 est.) |
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Natural hazards:
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katabatic (gravity-driven)
winds blow coastward from the high interior; frequent blizzards
form near the foot of the plateau; cyclonic storms form over the
ocean and move clockwise along the coast; volcanism on Deception
Island and isolated areas of West Antarctica; other seismic activity
rare and weak; large icebergs may calve from ice shelf |
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Environment - current issues:
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in 1998, NASA satellite
data showed that the antarctic ozone hole was the largest on record,
covering 27 million square kilometers; researchers in 1997 found
that increased ultraviolet light coming through the hole damages
the DNA of icefish, an antarctic fish lacking hemoglobin; ozone
depletion earlier was shown to harm one-celled antarctic marine
plants; in 2002, significant areas of ice shelves disintegrated
in response to regional warming |
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Geography - note:
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the coldest, windiest,
highest (on average), and driest continent; during summer, more
solar radiation reaches the surface at the South Pole than is received
at the Equator in an equivalent period; mostly uninhabitable
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Population:
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no indigenous inhabitants,
but there are seasonally staffed research stations
note: approximately 27 nations, all signatory to the Antarctic
Treaty, send personnel to perform seasonal (summer) and year-round
research on the continent and in its surrounding oceans; the
population of persons doing and supporting science on the continent
and its nearby islands south of 60 degrees south latitude (the
region covered by the Antarctic Treaty) varies from approximately
4,000 in summer to 1,000 in winter; in addition, approximately
1,000 personnel including ship's crew and scientists doing onboard
research are present in the waters of the treaty region; summer
(January) population - 3,687 total; Argentina 302, Australia
201, Belgium 13, Brazil 80, Bulgaria 16, Chile 352, China 70,
Finland 11, France 100, Germany 51, India 60, Italy 106, Japan
136, South Korea 14, Netherlands 10, NZ 60, Norway 40, Peru 28,
Poland 70, Russia 254, South Africa 80, Spain 43, Sweden 20,
UK 192, US 1,378 (1998-99); winter (July) population - 964 total;
Argentina 165, Australia 75, Brazil 12, Chile 129, China 33,
France 33, Germany 9, India 25, Japan 40, South Korea 14, NZ
10, Poland 20, Russia 102, South Africa 10, UK 39, US 248 (1998-99);
year-round stations - 42 total; Argentina 6, Australia 4, Brazil
1, Chile 4, China 2, Finland 1, France 1, Germany 1, India 1,
Italy 1, Japan 1, South Korea 1, NZ 1, Norway 1, Poland 1, Russia
6, South Africa 1, Spain 1, Ukraine 1, UK 2, US 3, Uruguay 1
(1998-99); summer-only stations - 32 total; Argentina 3, Australia
4, Bulgaria 1, Chile 7, Germany 1, India 1, Japan 3, NZ 1, Peru
1, Russia 3, Sweden 2, UK 5 (1998-99); in addition, during the
austral summer some nations have numerous occupied locations
such as tent camps, summer-long temporary facilities, and mobile
traverses in support of research (July 2003 est.)
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Country name:
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conventional long
form: none
conventional short form: Antarctica |
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Government type:
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Antarctic
Treaty Summary - the Antarctic Treaty, signed on 1 December 1959
and entered
into force on 23 June 1961, establishes the legal framework for
the management of Antarctica. The 24th Antarctic Treaty Consultative
Meeting was held in Russia in July 2001. At the end of 2001, there
were 45 treaty member nations: 27 consultative and 18 non-consultative.
Consultative (voting) members include the seven nations that claim
portions of Antarctica as national territory (some claims overlap)
and 20 nonclaimant nations. The US and Russia have reserved the
right to make claims. The US does not recognize the claims of others.
Antarctica is administered through meetings of the consultative
member nations. Decisions from these meetings are carried out by
these member nations (within their areas) in accordance with their
own national laws. The year in parentheses indicates when an acceding
nation was voted to full consultative (voting) status, while no
date indicates the country was an original 1959 treaty signatory.
Claimant nations are - Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New
Zealand, Norway, and the UK. Nonclaimant consultative nations are
- Belgium, Brazil (1983), Bulgaria (1998) China (1985), Ecuador
(1990), Finland (1989), Germany (1981), India (1983), Italy (1987),
Japan, South Korea (1989), Netherlands (1990), Peru (1989), Poland
(1977), Russia, South Africa, Spain (1988), Sweden (1988), Uruguay
(1985), and the US. Non-consultative (nonvoting) members, with
year of accession in parentheses, are - Austria (1987), Canada
(1988), Colombia (1989), Cuba (1984), Czech Republic (1993), Denmark
(1965), Estonia (2001), Greece (1987), Guatemala (1991), Hungary
(1984), North Korea (1987), Papua New Guinea (1981), Romania (1971),
Slovakia (1993), Switzerland (1990), Turkey (1995), Ukraine (1992),
and Venezuela (1999). Article 1 - area to be used for peaceful
purposes only; military activity, such as weapons testing, is prohibited,
but military personnel and equipment may be used for scientific
research or any other peaceful purpose; Article 2 - freedom of
scientific investigation and cooperation shall continue; Article
3 - free exchange of information and personnel, cooperation with
the UN and other international agencies; Article 4 - does not recognize,
dispute, or establish territorial claims and no new claims shall
be asserted while the treaty is in force; Article 5 - prohibits
nuclear explosions or disposal of radioactive wastes; Article 6
- includes under the treaty all land and ice shelves south of 60
degrees 00 minutes south and reserves high seas rights; Article
7 - treaty-state observers have free access, including aerial observation,
to any area and may inspect all stations, installations, and equipment;
advance notice of all expeditions and of the introduction of military
personnel must be given; Article 8 - allows for jurisdiction over
observers and scientists by their own states; Article 9 - frequent
consultative meetings take place among member nations; Article
10 - treaty states will discourage activities by any country in
Antarctica that are contrary to the treaty; Article 11 - disputes
to be settled peacefully by the parties concerned or, ultimately,
by the ICJ; Articles 12, 13, 14 - deal with upholding, interpreting,
and amending the treaty among involved nations. Other agreements
- some 200 recommendations adopted at treaty consultative meetings
and ratified by governments include - Agreed Measures for Fauna
and Flora (1964) which were later incorporated into the Environmental
Protocol; Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (1972);
Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources
(1980); a mineral resources agreement was signed in 1988 but remains
unratified; the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic
Treaty was signed 4 October 1991 and entered into force 14 January
1998; this agreement provides for the protection of the Antarctic
environment through five specific annexes: 1) marine pollution,
2) fauna and flora, 3) environmental impact assessments, 4) waste
management, and 5) protected area management; it prohibits all
activities relating to mineral resources except scientific research. |
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Legal system:
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Antarctica is administered
through meetings of the consultative member nations. Decisions
from these meetings are carried out by these member nations (within
their areas) in accordance with their own national laws. US law,
including certain criminal offenses by or against US nationals,
such as murder, may apply extra-territorially. Some US laws directly
apply to Antarctica. For example, the Antarctic Conservation Act,
16 U.S.C. section 2401 et seq., provides civil and criminal penalties
for the following activities, unless authorized by regulation of
statute: the taking of native mammals or birds; the introduction
of nonindigenous plants and animals; entry into specially protected
areas; the discharge or disposal of pollutants; and the importation
into the US of certain items from Antarctica. Violation of the
Antarctic Conservation Act carries penalties of up to $10,000 in
fines and one year in prison. The National Science Foundation and
Department of Justice share enforcement responsibilities. Public
Law 95-541, the US Antarctic Conservation Act of 1978, as amended
in 1996, requires expeditions from the US to Antarctica to notify,
in advance, the Office of Oceans, Room 5805, Department of State,
Washington, DC 20520, which reports such plans to other nations
as required by the Antarctic Treaty. For more information, contact
Permit Office, Office of Polar Programs, National Science Foundation,
Arlington, Virginia 22230; telephone: (703) 292-8030, or visit
their website at www.nsf.gov.
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Economy - overview:
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Fishing off the coast
and tourism, both based abroad, account for the limited economic
activity. Antarctic fisheries in 2000-01 (1 July-30 June) reported
landing 112,934 metric tons. Unregulated fishing, particularly
of tooth fish, is a serious problem. Allegedly illegal fishing
in antarctic waters in 1998 resulted in the seizure (by France
and Australia) of at least eight fishing ships. The Convention
on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources determines
the recommended catch limits for marine species. A total of 12,248
tourists visited in the 2000-01 antarctic summer, down from the
14,762 who visited the previous year. Nearly all of them were passengers
on 21 commercial (nongovernmental) ships and several yachts that
made trips during the summer. Most tourist trips lasted approximately
two weeks.
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Telephones - main lines in use:
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0
note: information for US bases only (2001) |
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Telephones - mobile cellular:
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NA; Iridium system
in use |
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Telephone system:
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general assessment: local
systems at some research stations
domestic: NA
international: via satellite from some research stations |
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Radio broadcast stations:
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AM NA, FM 2, shortwave
1
note: information for US bases only (2002) |
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Radios:
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NA |
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Television broadcast stations:
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1 (cable system with
six channels; American Forces Antarctic Network-McMurdo)
note: information for US bases only (2002) |
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Televisions:
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several hundred at
McMurdo Station (US)
note: information for US bases only (2001) |
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Internet country code:
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.aq |
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Internet Service Providers (ISPs):
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NA
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Ports and harbors:
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there
are no developed ports and harbors in Antarctica; most coastal
stations have offshore
anchorages, and supplies are transferred from ship to shore by
small boats, barges, and helicopters; a few stations have a basic
wharf facility; US coastal stations include McMurdo (77 51 S, 166
40 E), Palmer (64 43 S, 64 03 W); government use only except by
permit (see Permit Office under "Legal System"); all ships at port
are subject to inspection in accordance with Article 7, Antarctic
Treaty; offshore anchorage is sparse and intermittent |
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Airports:
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30
note: 30 stations, operated by 16 national governments
party to the Antarctic Treaty, have aircraft landing facilities
for either helicopters and/or fixed-wing aircraft; commercial
enterprises operate two additional aircraft landing facilities;
helicopter pads are available at 27 stations; runways at 15 locations
are gravel, sea-ice, blue-ice, or compacted snow suitable for
landing wheeled, fixed-wing aircraft; of these, 1 is greater
than 3 km in length, 6 are between 2 km and 3 km in length, 3
are between 1 km and 2 km in length, 3 are less than 1 km in
length, and 2 are of unknown length; snow surface skiways, limited
to use by ski-equipped, fixed-wing aircraft, are available at
another 15 locations; of these, 4 are greater than 3 km in length,
3 are between 2 km and 3 km in length, 2 are between 1 km and
2 km in length, 2 are less than 1 km in length, and 4 are of
unknown length; aircraft landing facilities generally subject
to severe restrictions and limitations resulting from extreme
seasonal and geographic conditions; aircraft landing facilities
do not meet ICAO standards; advance approval from the respective
governmental or nongovernmental operating organization required
for landing; landed aircraft are subject to inspection in accordance
with Article 7, Antarctic Treaty (2002) |
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Airports - with unpaved runways:
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total: 19
over 3,047 m: 6
2,438 to 3,047 m: 3
914 to 1,523 m: 4
under 914 m: 5 (2002)
1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 |
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Heliports:
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27 stations have
helicopter landing facilities (helipads) (2002)
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Military - note:
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the Antarctic Treaty
prohibits any measures of a military nature, such as the establishment
of military bases and fortifications, the carrying out of military
maneuvers, or the testing of any type of weapon; it permits the
use of military personnel or equipment for scientific research
or for any other peaceful purposes
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Disputes - international:
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Antarctic Treaty
freezes claims (see Antarctic Treaty Summary in Government type
entry); sections (some overlapping) claimed by Argentina, Australia,
Chile, France, NZ, Norway, and UK; the US and most other states
do not recognize the territorial claims of other states and have
made no claims themselves (the US and Russia reserve the right
to do so); no claims have been made in the sector between 90 degrees
west and 150 degrees west; several states with land claims in Antarctica
have expressed their intention to submit data to the UN Commission
on the Limits of the Continental Shelf to extend their continental
shelf claims to adjoining undersea ridges
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